Students can then move to studying the relationships between separate shots through analysis of various film techniques employed in cinematography. For background reading on various techniques, the two best resources are:

Bordwell and Thompson’s (2004) Film Art, An Introduction (7th ed.) — a sample chapter on Film Production, Distribution, and Exhibition
 
Louise Giannetti (2002), Understanding Movies, (Prentice Hall, 9th ed.)
Click here for an online study guide to this textbook.

Another useful book is James Monaco’s (2000) How to View a Film (Oxford University Press, 3rd ed.) which is available as a book, as a “multimedia edition” which provides for extensive use of pdf files and visual materials.

For English teachers, John Golden’s (2001) Reading in the Dark: Using Film as a Tool in the English Classroom (NCTE) is a useful resource because he integrates study of film technique with study of literature based on shared reading strategies — predicting, responding, questioning, and storyboarding, as well as links between aspects of characterization, point of view, and irony in film and literature.

In studying different types of techniques, what’s essential is that students understand the underlying purposes for why filmmakers are using these different techniques. Simply having students memorize a lot of definitions for different techniques will do little good unless they are able to understand the ways in which these techniques are used to develop the storyline, setting, or characters. You may therefore want to have students construct their own script and storyboard (see later material on this) that requires them to apply their knowledge to thinking about purposes for using different techniques.

The meaning of these different techniques is based on a set of Hollywood film conventions in which certain techniques have become associated with certain conventional meanings based on realist representations of the world. However, it is important to recognize that these conventions have been and continue to be violated by more experimental or expressionist filmmakers who do not believe that they need to conform to realist assumptions. For example, most realists attempt to portray a smooth transition between shots so that someone walking through a house moves seamlessly from room to room. Experimental filmmakers may not perceive the need to follow these conventions. They may, for example, employ a set of jump-cuts in which the person is in one side of the house but suddenly appears at the other side of the house.

If you are working in an on-line context, you can have students share on-line film trailers and have them identify uses of different techniques.

Frames. One of the most basic concepts is the idea of the frame — what is included as well as left out of a shot. This relates to what is known as “off-frame” action — the fact that an audience may be aware of someone or something that is outside of the frame — a lurking murderer. The size and focus of the frame defines the types of different shots employed. Shots also differ in terms of where they position the audience in relationship to the setting, persons, or objects portrayed.

Establishing/extreme long shot. A shot that serves to initially set the scene is an establishing shot often framed by an extreme-long shot of a landscape or locale in which characters are only specks in the scene.

Long-shot. In contrast to the extreme long-shot, people are now shown at the point to which the audience can view their entire body.

Medium shot. A medium shot portrays the people’s bodies from the waist up; in some cases, an over-the-shoulder shot with two people portrays one person looking up or down at the other person. In the 1950s, females were often shown looking up at males, not only because they were often shorter than the males, but also because this shot implied a power imbalance.

Close-up shot. A close-up shot often fills the screen with only a face or an object for the purpose of dramatizing nonverbal reactions or signaling the symbolic importance of an object.

Wide-angle lens. If a filmmaker wants to emphasize the relationships between foreground and background aspects of a face or object, they will use a wide-angle lens that creates an exaggerated look.

Telephoto lens. If a filmmaker wants to give the appearance that a person or object is closer to the audience, even though they may be quite far away, they will use a telephoto lens. This can be used in shots in which a person is running towards the audience, in a manner that seems like a long time.

Low-angle shot. If a filmmaker wants to place the audience as looking up on a person or object, they use a low angle shot, often for the purpose of associating power with the person or object.

High-angle shot. In contrast, a shot down on the person or object places the audience in a dominant position over that person or object.

Pan shot. A pan shot is used to move or scan across a locale.

Tracking shot. A tracking shot is used to following a moving person or object; the camera itself is moving, on a dolly or moving car.

Zoom shot. A zoom shot is used to focus in on or to move back from a person or object.

Point-of-view shot. A point-of-view shot is designed to mimic the perspective of a person so that the audience is experiencing the world through the eyes of the person.

Examples of different types of shots

British Film Institute. (2002). Introduction to film language.
[CD Rom]. London: British Film Institute.

A Glossary of Film Terms

Useful Vocabulary for Film Studies

All Movie Guide Glossary

Film Terms

Geocities film classroom
excellent links to different aspects of film/production

Thinkquest: The Motion Picture Industry Behind-the-Scenes

Cyber Film School

BBC: Video production skills

Director in the Classroom: Resources

Lots of links to film technique resources

English Online: Making Movies

Module 3: Word document

Visual Literacy: Starting with the Image

Studying Images through Still Photography

Comics and Film Technique

Film Techniques

Lighting

Editing

Sound

Using Film Techniques to Convey Cinematic Meanings

Defining Purposes for Editing Decisions: Creating Storyboards

Analysis/Evaluation of Film Technique

Film History

Television History

Accessing On-line Films / Film Reviews / Ratings / Information

Animation and Special Effects

Film Study Methods

Writing about Films

Film Study Resources

Film Journals/Magazines

References

Teaching Activities