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Richard.Jewell.net |
CollegeWriting.info
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CollegeWriting.info |
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The Basics of a Proposal |
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This section explains the basics of writing and revising a proposal--why a proposal exists and how to start, organize, and edit it. You may want to first see the "Introduction" before reading this section. Be sure, after reading this section, to also visit "Sample Papers" by students.
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Why This Type of Paper? |
The heart of a proposal is a problem and a solution. It is never a pat answer--an easy or obvious one--nor a simple report of a situation. A proposal actively engages the audience in new ideas: sometimes a new awareness of a hitherto unknown problem or need, and sometimes a new solution to a problem or need. Even if the problem or need is obvious, and the general solution is clear, too, a good proposal does not restate the obvious: instead, it details the problem and then even more carefully provides new details of the method or steps for solving the problem.
Proposal writing has many uses in the professional world, and some in school, too. In the professional world, proposal writing is a necessary skill if you wish to thrive and, in some workplaces, simply survive. There will be times when you need to institute new or different activities; to do so, you will need official permission, and such permission will require a formal or informal proposal. Some of you may become owners of your own small businesses and will need to learn to sell your products or services to others; to do this, you also will need to know the basic skills of proposal writing. Your services or products will help solve or fill your clients' problems or needs with specific results, and a proposal can use these elements of presentation to explain to your clients why they should engage your business. Proposal writing also is helpful to know for acquiring bank loans, convincing government units to make a change, and even sometimes for deciding when to propose marriage or thinking through a potential marriage proposal from someone else. (There is nothing like a little bit of cause-and-effect logic to decide whether and when you can promise to live with someone for the rest of your life!)
In academic courses, proposal writing is useful for setting up a scholarly or scientific project to propose to an instructor. Proposal writing--or the basic elements in it of problem, solution, and results--also can be useful in analyzing events and people in such disciplines as history, psychology, sociology, chemistry, physics, and other classes.
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How Will You Start? |
The major section of this Web textbook called "Starting" offers a number of useful ways to start thinking, speaking, and writing about a subject. The following advice is for this chapter's type of paper in particular.
When brainstorming a proposal, you might start by imagining some need or problem of which you are aware in your place of work or academic subject. Then imagine a way to satisfy this need. Another way to start a proposal is to propose yourself to someone for a job. Still another way to start is to write a simple complaint letter about a product, service, or activity that is wrong and needs changing--and then to suggest a method of making the change. You also can propose a paper or other academic project by describing a problem or need, first--a missing, incomplete, or incorrect idea or belief, for example--and then describing how your paper will detail a solution or resolution to this problem.
You can brainstorm by writing down a long list of ideas, events, and details you want to discuss; then choose one or a few and start writing. You also can start by freewriting: simply letting out your thoughts and feelings about the project or situation on paper. Outlining is another option, especially if you are an experienced proposal writer. If you are looking for an especially interesting, sharp, or reader-grabbing proposal, you might start by first developing some interesting or wild opposite ideas--that is, make up some fictions--and write about those a bit; then look at them and see if any of them reflect an interesting truth or otherwise new angle on how to see problem or need. (However, don't get too wild! The final proposal must be an accurate reflection of reality.) You also can practice imaging. Stretch, then sit back, relax, breathe, clear your mind. Then ask yourself, "What image accurately demonstrates the core of the problem or need?" You also can practice imaging by imagining your readers, or one typical reader, and writing your first draft for that person in answer to the questions he or she might have.
The style, tone, or sense of audience you use in your early drafting can, of course, be anything you want. However, if you are the type of person who writes early drafts better if you know what tone of voice to use, then for a proposal, you should choose a professional tone--businesslike if it is for a workplace proposal, or formally academic if it is for a college course. Your report should have a tone of confidence, fairness, and logic.
The style should be formal unless you specifically have been told that an informal style is preferred. In a workplace proposal, your style generally should be clear, simple, straightforward, and efficient. In an academic proposal, your style should make use of somewhat longer and more complex words, phrases, and sentences. In either type of writing, avoid sounding emotional, but also avoid sounding mechanical; try instead to sound logical, thoughtful, and open to suggestions. In some situations, a friendly tone is helpful; in others, a tone of strength and certainty is more appropriate.
You also may start with a sense of your audience, if you wish. If you do, consider not only the immediate person(s) who might see your proposal, but also the wider network of peers, other supervisors, and/or committees who might read it, as well.
In any case, write your first drafts however you wish. Then revise as needed so that the appropriate tone, style, and sense of audience are evident in each paragraph and sentence.
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What Are Some Organizing Methods? |
When organizing a proposal, you may want to consider three practical matters. First, it is helpful to be aware of the typical visual/textual design; second, of the central key to organizing this type of paper; and third, of some dangers to avoid. General principles of organizing all types of papers are described in the "Organizing" chapter. Here are specific details for organizing a proposal.
The Visual Plan
In workplace writing, often a writer is especially concerned about the structure or pattern. It's fine if this is how you approach writing a professional paper: while your content--your ideas and details--ultimately are the important thing--they are wrapped up in a structure that actually helps determine what they will be and how they will be shaped. The structure of a paper helps you learn what to look for in developing it. Below are two views of the structure or organization of a proposal: the simple version, as shown already in the "Introduction," and a more complex, detailed version:
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Brief, Descriptive Title |
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TYPE
OF PAPER |
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RESTATEMENT
OF PURPOSE CONCLUDING IDEAS and/or |
Here is a more detailed view of a proposal's structure. This view is a visual and textual plan. The paragraph lengths stated below are applicable in general to short papers of this kind; longer papers may require more paragraphs.
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Efficient,
Descriptive Title |
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Introduction** |
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Abstract If required or needed, a brief summary of the overall proposal. [1-2 par.] |
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Problem,
Need, or Background |
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Solution, Resolution, or
Proposal |
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Plan or Method of
Implementation |
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Results or
Outcomes |
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Credentials If required or needed, a brief summary of your qualifications. [1 par.] |
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Conclusion Proposal (1-2 sent.). Purpose (if needed;1-2 sent.). Summary of results/outcomes (1 or more sent.). Final positive statement. [1 par.] |
Footnoted Advice Given in Most Chapters about Professional Writing: *In many fields and disciplines, the title is centered and typed simply: no quotation marks, underlining, or bold marking. In some businesses and workplaces, a slightly larger font and/or bold marking may be appropropriate. The font style should be the one used used in the rest of the paper. Typical font size and style in academic writing is 12-point font (in business, sometimes 10 point) in easily readable styles (with serifs--the "flags" on the bottoms and/or tops of letters) such as Times New Roman, Garamond, or CG Times. In any professional situation, use what is commonly acceptable in your workplace. However, the larger and more formal the workplace, the more likely it is to incline toward the academic style established by graduate schools in the same field or discipline. ** In some fields and disciplines, the "Introduction" subtitle may be optional or even forbidden. (Most social sciences and psychology papers, for example, should not have an "Introduction" subtitle.) ***In most workplace writing, the more common practice is to use subtitles. However, in some academic or professional settings, instructors may allow--or even, occasionally, prefer--your paper to be completely free of subtitles. (Some literature, history, and philosophy instructors, for example, consider subtitles inappropriate.) If you use no subtitles at all, consider using an extra space break at the beginning of each body section and/or an especially strong, clear topic sentence.
For more
about organizing body sections, topic sentences, and subtitles in academic
writing,
please go to "Organizing
College Papers." For more about organizing paragraphs, go to the
"Paragraphing." |
The Key to Building a Proposal: Answering a Need in Detail
The key to building a proposal is to carefully and fully provide an answer or solution (your proposal) to a need (a problem, lack, or new situation) using thorough detail. The overall organization of a proposal is to have the basic structure of
problem > solution > method > results
A proposal is a clear, simply ordered explanation of why someone needs something, and how that need can be answered. As in most workplace writing, you need to have clear, obvious organization: separate divisions or body sections, each with its own brief subtitle and a topic sentence detailing what the subtitle implies. You may develop these body sections in any order you want as you write your first and second drafts. However, at some point these body sections need to be carefully organized in the pattern shown above, as follows.
Openings: In a simple proposal, a brief title and opening paragraph often is enough. However, more complex proposals may require more opening paragraphs as follows:
Title: Keep the title simple and efficient, and describe your proposal. If appropriate for your workplace or instructor, you may print the title in slightly larger and/or bold print; otherwise, use normal type. After the title, on a separate line, print your name (or names if the proposal is collaborative, in order of contribution or, if contribution is equal, in alphabetical order). Iif appropriate or helpful, add a contact email address and/or phone number.
Introduction: Keep it simple. State the type of paper you are writing in the introduction and/or the title (so readers can distinguish it from similar types of papers such as a report or a recommendation). Also state the proposal itself succinctly--preferably in one clear, strong sentence. If your readers may not understand exactly why you are making this proposal, then you should also explain the specific purpose of your paper: i.e., is there a special problem or need such as a required change or a new opportunity that you need to mention so your readers know exactly why you are making the proposal? Finally, you should summarize in a sentence or two the overall result or outcome if you have not already done so.
Some workplaces also like to have a shorter version of the "abstract" (below) placed, instead, in the introduction. And if you happen to be writing a proposal with research--a proposal requiring quotations, paraphrases, charts and graphs, or other details, it may be appropriate to place an especially important quotation or other detail in the introduction
Abstract: If requested to do so, you should write an abstract. An abstract is a summary, often just a paragraph or two, of a paper you have written. Sometimes workplace supervisors, especially those who are above your immediate supervisor or who are members of a supervising committee, may want a brief abstract of a proposal so that they do not have to read the entire paper. At other times, an abstract may be useful when supervisors wish to refresh their memory of the key details of a proposal they already have read. For more details about how to write an abstract, see "Writing an Abstract." (Your supervisor or instructor may prefer a shorter abstract that is part of the "Introduction," above.)
Main Body Sections: The exact names and final form or style of body sections in proposals may differ from workplace to workplace or instructor to instructor, so it always is important to ask your supervisor or instructor what he or she wants. Most proposals require multiple paragraphs in each body section; in fact, major proposals involving hundreds of thousands or millions of dollars usually are book length, with each body section requiring one or more "chapters." When writing a proposal for a supervisor or instructor, it usually is especially helpful to see good examples of previous proposals this person has requested in order to understand exactly what contents and body sections you should write. Even though body sections may vary dramatically from one to another proposal, usually there is an underlying structure or overall pattern that is somewhat typical of most general workplace proposals. If your supervisor or instructor has no other pattern for you to follow, the pattern below may be helpful:
Problem or Need: a thorough, helpful, knowledgeable description of the basic problem, need, or new requirement, or changed situation. Break the problem or need into two or more subcategories, or list several problems/needs, explaining each, and start your list with an overall summary of the general problem/need area.
You should confine this problem or need and its description to just what can be solved by your proposal: i.e., don't wax at length about a series of problems or needs that your proposal does not address. If research is appropriate or desirable, often this section is the place for adding statistics, quotations, and/or paraphrases that help highlight or better explain the problem or that compare it to such problems in similar situations. If your proposal is for an academic project, this section offers the opportunity for you to provide background information and, perhaps, conflicting data or ideas that make your proposal appropriate.
As you develop this section, consider your readers' sensitivities and needs. Do not blame anyone; moreover, do not make a problem or need sound like it is an error of judgment, a lack of intelligence, or any other negative event. In this regard, remember that once upon a time, someone whose motives were probably, in their own way, just as pure--and whose vision was just as intelligent--as your own proposed what currently exists. Rather, emphasize the constructive and the positive. You may even wish to include a fault-relieving reason for the present problem or new need: for example, "Twenty years ago, no one was able to foresee the need for this project, but now we have a new opportunity to...." Proposals in particular must foster teamwork. They create change, which is not always an easy thing to start. As a result, you need the cooperation of a great many people to accept the proposal, successfully implement it, and live with it happily after implementation.
Solution, Resolution, or Proposal: a general statement of one or more paragraphs of the solution or resolution that you propose. This section should clearly explain exactly what the proposal is, what it means, and why it is the best available option. The 5 W's of journalism might help in developing this initial explanation:
Questions to Answer in Explaining Your Proposal
What? Who?
Where?
When?
Why/How?
What is the basic proposal? Who is involved in it?
Where will it happen?
When will it happen?
Why is it good and/or how will it happen?
However, you should keep this section relatively brief, explaining the proposal in general terms. You should not yet explain the specific details of how the proposal will be carried out, nor should you yet describe the details of what the results or outcomes will be. Those details should come later, in the sections below. It may help to think of this section as a summary of your proposal and its purposes and results. In this section, you have the opportunity to explain your reasoning to your readers in a language that is clear, logical, and thoughtful. As you do so, keep in mind your readers and the questions they might ask. Who might your readers be if your proposal is passed on to higher-level supervisors and/or a committee for consideration? What kinds of questions might these different types of people ask? Using the 5 W's of journalism above is a simple, efficient, and broad method of posing such questions. However, the 5 W's are a generic system. If you can brainstorm a more specific list of questions your own real workplace readers may ask, answering these questions may help you develop this section better. Often, a combination of some of the 5 W's of journalism and your own brainstormed questions helps most.
Plan or Method of Implementation: a detailed description, often with lists, of the steps of implementing your proposal and of the people, deadlines, and materials involved in doing so. Proposals are the poetry of the business world: they require a strong, highly focused set of details in a relatively short space of paper. The poetry is especially in the details: a proposal is worthless unless it has excellent details that show, step by step, how it can be implemented. This section proves whether your proposal is possible to turn into a reality. Start this section with a very brief summary of what you are going to present in it. Then present details. Usually you should use sub-subtitles. Once again the exact categories you need may vary from situation to situation: for example, an academic proposal may not require a "Budget" section. Check with your supervisor or instructor. In workplace environments, you may need some or all of the following categories:
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITIES--Write a general description of the number and types of activities if you are required to do so. If not required, and especially if the activities are simple or few in number, this subsection can be combined with the next one, "Schedule."
SCHEDULE, STEPS, or DEADLINES--Use dates and descriptions of activities to show what you will do, step by step, and when. In proposals suggesting large amounts of time or several complex series of activities, you may need several subcategories of "Schedule."
BUDGET--Show all the costs, both obvious and hidden. Consider not only new purchases but also the dollar amounts of taking people's time and overhead away from their normal activities. In proposals with complex finances, you may need several subcategories of "Budget."
PERSONNEL--Develop a job description--a role title and description of activities--for each person involved. Include how much time will be required of each person, what he/she will cost (including benefits), and, if they already are employees, how much of their time will be taken away from their normal work and the dollar value of this time. If you also are proposing specific individuals by name for the activities, it may be appropriate to develop a brief description of each person's credentials here; if additional descriptions of their credentials are helpful, you can add their resumes to the very end of the document and note that addition in the "Personnel" section. (If you are the only person who will be active in implementation and you decide to add your credentials, you may do so here or at the end in a separate "Credentials" paragraph, below.)
EVALUATION--If appropriate, describe how you will evaluate the project's success and when. In more complex projects, usually there is some kind of evaluation at least once or twice during it, at its end, and, often, several months or a year later when final outcomes can be better assessed.
Results, Product, Gain, or Outcomes: a discussion, list, and/or description of what will happen after successful implementation of your proposed project. Though this section is placed near the end of your proposal, it is as important as the other sections, in some situations more so. It is here that you show the proposal actually has merit. Why should your proposal be implemented? What good does it accomplish? What bad might it do? How will it affect the workplace and everyone connected to it, employees, customers, and owners? The answers to these questions are very important to those who must decide whether to fund or reject your proposal. You have to convince them that change is worthwhile--that it is safer or better than keeping everything as it is.
There are several ways this section can be developed. Often, people develop a list of outcomes, then define and explain each one in more detail. There are two pairs of subcategories often used in some form in a "Results" section:
"Results" Subcategories
POSITIVE
OUTCOMESSHORT-TERM
OUTCOMESPOTENTIAL
PROBLEMSLONG-RANGE
OUTCOMESIn longer and/or more complex proposals, you may need to develop these subcategories as official subtitles with their own separate lists or paragraphs. In shorter and more simple proposals, you may not need to use these subcategories so obviously. However, even in short proposals, it may be valuable to mention (after describing several positive results) at least one or two potential problems--during or after implementation--and how they can be handled. And it also may be worthwhile to mention, after describing the short-term results, one or two long-term benefits, as well. Doing so--mentioning both potential problems and long-range results--helps demonstrate that you have considered the full dimensions of what you are proposing.
The length of this section may be determined in part by how obvious and simple (or previously unimagined and complex) the outcomes may be to readers. In any case, it is better to once again remember the workplace-writing maxim that your proposal may rise several levels higher than your immediate supervisor, so you should consider whether to explain outcomes more thoroughly to those who may not be immediately involved in day-to-day management. You also need to consider the hopes and needs of these higher levels of supervision and tailor your suggestions to their perceptions and knowledge as well as you can.
Closing Paragraph(s): A simple proposal often requires only a short final paragraph to restate and summarize what you have said. However, longer or more complex proposals sometimes require more:
Credentials or References: In some situations, the readers of your proposal may not know who you are or what you have accomplished in the past that gives you the appropriate background for making your proposal intelligently. If such is the case, add a relatively brief paragraph summarizing your relevant experience, training, and/or education that makes you capable of writing this proposal well. Often, a proposal writer also coordinates or assists in implementation of the proposed project; for this reason, you may also need to mention the credentials that make you an appropriate coordinator or assistant for implementation. If a short paragraph is not enough to present yourself fully, then you may also add your resume to the end of the entire proposal and make a note of this addition in your "Credentials" paragraph. (If you already have described your credentials in the "Personnel" subsection above, you do not need to repeat them here.) At times, you may also--or instead-- need to briefly list or describe references: one or more people who know you and your work and can vouch for you. When writing a references paragraph, generally you should very briefly state each reference's name, position, relevance to judging your work on this project, and phone number and/or email address.
Conclusion: a usually short paragraph summarizing your proposal, your need/problem, and the outcomes very briefly. Some supervisors or instructors may prefer that you develop a longer conclusion of a paragraph or two by discussing the results or outcomes here, rather than in a separate "Results/Outcomes" section, as above.
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As
you develop or revise your organization, consider how you are forming your
paragraphs. To
see how to develop paragraphs individually, go to the "Paragraphing"
chapter in the "Revising and Editing" section.
If your paper requires research, see the "Research" section of this Web site or the Online Grammar Handbook for methods of research, citation, and documentation. Remember to add an appropriate bibliography.
For further Web directions on how to write papers in your specific profession or workplace, check out this section's "Links" page. For additional physical textbooks, handbooks, and guides related to your particular profession or workplace, see the "Annotated Bibliography."
Dangers to Avoid as You Organize
One of the dangers in writing a proposal is to assume that you can say whatever you want in the proposal because the details can be changed once it is accepted. This often can be entirely untrue. Oftentimes, workplaces are not that flexible. In other words, whatever you propose may come to pass exactly as you have proposed it. For this reason, be sure that you know exactly what you are suggesting, especially in the details of the "Plan/Implementation" section. Whatever it is, you may have to live with it for better or worse.
Another danger, as stated above, is to underestimate how widely your proposal may be read and how high up the chain of command it may go. Good proposals tend to have a life of their own, reaching a lot more readers than you might expect--even, sometimes, to subsidiaries, supervisors, and committees entirely unrelated to the proposal's project. Sometimes this happens because proud supervisors want to show others what their employees are doing, and sometimes because it is an easy way for supervisors to share current and future activities in their areas without having to write their own summaries. In any case, it often is wise to write a proposal with a much larger audience in mind, vertically and horizontally, than your immediate supervisor.
A third danger lies in using a boring style that leaves your readers feeling that you do not strongly support your own proposal. While proposals should be efficient and logical, the best proposals have a tone of underlying strength and excitement. They do not sound emotional; rather, there is a confidence and a hope in the tone that convinces the reader not only that the author knows what he or she is talking about, but also that the author really does think the proposal is a great idea and very much hopes it will be accepted. Generally you should not state in your proposal that you are excited and that your hopes or high, for that would sound unprofessional. However, your tone in the paper clearly should convey your strong, positive attitude.
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As you complete your later drafts, look carefully at the visual map above and the sample papers in this chapter. Rearrange the order of your body sections and of your paragraphs as needed. Consider your use of major organizing devices: for example, have you placed the correct key sentences in your introduction and conclusion, and have you developed a subtitle and topic sentence at the beginning of each major body section?
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Are There Any Special Revising and Editing Needs? |
In revising a proposal, the focus techniques with which you started in the "Introduction" to this chapter can help you in finishing your paper:
FOUR FOCUSES FOR REVISING: Subject, Drafts,
Style, & Authenticity
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SUBJECT: Have you stayed on the subject throughout? In a proposal, this means being sure that everything ties together logically, not just in your own mind but in the minds of readers. You also should avoid adding details and thoughts ideas just because they are interesting. In professional writing, be efficient in keeping to the subject at hand. (If you have a really helpful or interesting detail that is indirectly related, place it in a brief footnote.) If you think your audience may have trouble grasping some parts of your paper, add background or explanation. |
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FIRST
& SECOND DRAFTS: Have
you used all of these methods to write and revise your drafts?
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STYLE & TONE: Have you converted all parts of
your writing to the appropriate style and tone? Your
paper should have a professional writing style, which means sentences
and words of reasonable but not excessive length and complexity (and
nothing your audience cannot
easily understand). Paragraphs generally should be of mixed
medium and short lengths with few long ones. (However, in academic proposals,
your style should be like that in other academic papers: with mixed long and
medium paragraphs of reasonable complexity and length, with an occasional
short paragraph or sentence added for emphasis or transition.) For a highly formal
professional style or a normal academic style, set your
grammar check in recent MS Word programs to "Grammar
& Style" (go to "Tools," "Options,"
"Grammar," and "Writing Style"). The tone or voice
in your proposal should be one of professional competence, honesty,
and confidence. Warmth may or may not be helpful, depending on your
audience, but coldness, sarcasm, or emotionalism should be avoided.
To check tone or voice, try
reading your paper aloud--or have a friend
read it aloud to you--so you can hear whether your sentences sound as you want them to. |
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AUTHENTICITY: Have you made your paper as reasonable, practicable, and
logical as possible to your
audience? If you're not sure, ask questions of your audience ahead
of time, and imagine how your audience member(s) might want elements of
your paper explained to them. Have you tried to go to the heart
of the matter you are discussing? Have you provided valuable,
necessary details? Is the subject important to you? Sometimes authenticity that
seems lacking
can be reestablished by developing more meaningful details and by using
sentences clearly, step by step, to guide your readers clearly through
your paper. Sometimes a few concise but meaningful sentences in the introduction and
conclusion also can help. |
For specific, line-by-line editing of professional papers, you should consider some of the following:
To see more details about these important elements of editing professional and workplace writing, click on any of them.
One editing concern specific to proposal writing is to have every last word, detail, and punctuation mark as right as you can. This is, perhaps, more important than in almost any other type of workplace writing for two reasons. One is that even as your proposal is being judged by its contents, you and the proposal are being judged by your proper use of language, of the facts, and even of grammatical usage. In a proposal, these editing concerns are like the clothing you wear to a job interview: fairly or unfairly, your readers will assume that the quality of your editing reflects the time, energy, and intelligence you are able and willing to devote to your proposal. And a second reason that your editing should be especially good in a proposal is, as mentioned above, that if your proposal looks good, it may rise to higher levels and expand to wider audiences than you expect--and these higher and wider audiences can be expected to have, among them, people who are good writers.
In addition, several common, useful strategies about efficient, thorough editing are in the "Revising" and "Editing" sections. These strategies also are summarized in one screen, which you might find very useful if you have not yet read it several times. To read or review it, click here:
Conclusion
A proposal is simply a paper (a letter or essay) convincing your reader that he or she needs something, and explaining how this need can be met. The best proposals are thoughtful explorations of what needs to be done, what will result, and what problems may be encountered along the way.
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What Are Some Advanced Methods? |
Scientific Proposals (and Reports)
Organizational patterns for scientific proposals may vary; however, it is possible to make a proposal for a scientific project by following the organizational pattern for a proposal as outlined in this chapter and simultaneously following the widely- used scientific-report pattern called "IMRaD" ("Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion"). Using the IMRaD method, you can write a scientific project proposal as follows. In addition, you may use the same pattern to write the final scientific report. The only difference between the proposal and the report is that the former predicts, while the latter describes what happened.
(1) Abstract: This serves as the introduction. Write one paragraph which contains (1) the purpose of the paper (i.e., to propose a project), and one or two sentences from each of the IMRaD sections, "2"-"5" below,--usually the beginning content- topic sentence of the section and possibly one other useful sentence. Remember to keep the abstract brief: it is not a place to describe and detail, but rather a place to give the reader a brief but whole taste of each important section to come. In scientific writing, it also serves as a brief summary for science readers who need to know what your proposed experiment is, how you will conduct it, and what its outcomes may be.
(2) Introduction: The introduction to a scientific proposal should contain much the same pattern as does a final scientific paper itself: i.e., an overview of the project and a good deal of background information explaining the project's need, value, and/or place in its field. This section requires a thorough, thoughtful, and concise overview and background of what has led to your proposed project and why it will be helpful or necessary. As you start this section, Be sure to include brief statements about the type of paper you are writing (a proposal), the subject (what you are proposing), and the reason (why you are proposing the project). Be sure to fully describe the nature and scope of the need or problem. In addition, you should present a thorough review of the relevant literature: it can be extremely important to justify the need for your proposal by research. A scientific proposal often may be, in this regard, a research paper. Some people to whom you are making an application or proposal may also wish to you complete the other parts of an Introduction to a scientific paper: the method of examination and why you have chosen it, the results you hope to obtain, and the conclusions which the results may imply. However, in a briefer and therefore more efficient proposal, you may discuss these elements in the remaining proposal sections, #3-#6 below.
In short, your introduction needs, at a minimum, these parts:
(a) Type of paper,
(b) what you are proposing, and
(c) why you are proposing it.
(d) Nature and scope of need or problem.
(e) Thorough review of literature, including proper citation of sources.
(3) Methods (or Materials and Methods): In this section you will need many specific details organized in several sub-sections. These include the methods and/or materials you plan to use, and three items from a standard proposal--BUDGET or COSTS, SCHEDULE or TIMELINES, and the PERSONNEL (including their job descriptions; who will experiment and who will tabulate results; how many hours, days, or weeks each will work; and the credentials of the primary experimenters). Usually, each of these several subsections is required. Any or all may require substantial development using descriptions, lists, charts, and/or diagrams, as required. Be sure to look at a sample scientific proposal, especially one that your instructor or lab supervisor can provide for your particular professional sub-discipline or course. If you wish, you may use sub-subtitles for the items; however, make them less noticeable than the primary subtitles: e.g., you can printing them in bold or in caps with no underlining. Each sub-subtitle may be printed on a line of its own, like a subtitle (e.g., "BUDGET" or "Budget") or printed as the first word on a line that starts the content, along with a colon (.e.g., "BUDGET: The following items and amounts...." or "Budget: The following items and amounts....").
In the scientific world, grant proposals are what fund most scientists and their projects. Such proposals are notorious for requiring a time-consuming and even maddening amount of details, which include costs, times, dates, numbers, and amounts. A good scientific proposal predicts exactly the technical and physical needs to complete, record, and report the experiment. Therefore, you should be as complete and thorough as you can--so there will be no unpleasant surprises concerning additional materials and/or costs. A well-planned Methods section gains respect and acceptance; a poorly planned one is an immediate indication to a reader that the author of the proposal is not sufficiently prepared to receive funding for the project. For any methods peculiar to specific researchers--methods not considered universal or standard--cite your sources.
(4) Results: What results are possible from this experiment? Because you have not yet carried out the experiment, there are both positive and negative results to consider. Both usually are important because both have important and valuable implications. Because you are writing a proposal, it is appropriate to develop your Results section by fully describing both the possible positive and possible negative results. Give sufficient details such that your reader will understand how both (or all) variants of results might occur. You may begin to mention the implications of both types of results; however, save your full discussion of the implications for the Discussion section.
(5) Discussion: Plainly and efficiently discuss the meanings of the possible results, both positive and negative. Be clear and to the point, but also develop this section sufficiently. Remember that you have implications to discuss for at least two different sets of results: positive and negative. Tie possible results to previously published materials and current experiments or projects by comparing and/or contrasting. Express the need or possibility for future experiments. Explain theoretical implications in your field for both (or all) possible results. You also may consider and discuss a variety of important implications for related professional fields and/or for the public sphere. This section may involve research as does section #2: in this section, your research ties your possible results and implications to the results and/or implications of other research studies.
(6) Conclusion: a brief paragraph restating the project proposal and its value.
(7) Bibliography of cited sources (see the "Research" section of this Web site or the Online Grammar Handbook for methods of citation and documentation).
For further directions on how to write a scientific paper, see this Web site's lists of student handbooks, guides, and textbooks for different disciplines in the "Annotated Bibliography."
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