CollegeWriting.info: "The Way of Writing an X"--Section Introduction Page

EXAMPLE FROM "How Should You Organize":] How should you organize college papers? Is there one standard method? What do college instructors expect? What you will learn from this chapter is how the average successful college writer (and professional worker) learns to construct his or her papers. These methods are based on the learning and the trial-and-error experiments of millions of college students and professional workers. It is how most college students actually learn to write, whether they receive good instruction on how to do this or simply develop their skills through their own hard-won experiences.

How should you format college papers? The truth of the matter is that different departments and disciplines have different organizational expectations. For example, an upper-division (junior or senior) business class instructor will expect a very distinct format when you are asked to write a "proposal" or a "recommendation report"; an instructor in an upper-division psychology course will want a rather specific format if he or she assigns you a "case study"; a lab course will have a specific format for a "lab report" or "scientific report"; and, as most people recognize, a journalism instructor will expect several different forms, each distinctive, such as a news article, an editorial, and a magazine interview. There are many other formats, as well, ones that you will need to learn as you go through disciplinary and departmental courses and majors. Some of the most important and basic of these are represented in the chapters in this online handbook.

However, the good news is that college composition instructors generally have in mind, as your primary format for writing, a general organization that is rather familiar to most composition and English instructors. In addition, this same format is accepted--even required--in a large number of lower-division (first- and second-year) departments and disciplines. What follows is a discussion of what this pattern is not, what it is, and how you can focus your own writing methods to develop this pattern.

advice from the end of each "Basics" section to build on in this editing section:

In conclusion, here are two brief sets of advice from "Editing," repeated in this same place in almost every chapter about academic and professional writing:

(A) HAVE YOU THOROUGHLY EDITED?

Problem: Most people who write papers have something intelligent to say. However, a great many papers receive low grades simply because the papers are difficult to read or understand.
Solution: Such problems often can be cured simply by much more thorough revising and editing. Success in editing is measured much more by how much time you spend on it than by how "good" you are at it.
What can you do? Stop seeing the contents of your paper when you read it just for its editing needs. Do so by reading it
(a) backward, (b) aloud, and (c) sentence by sentence.
How should you make the changes? Fix just one type or group of errors at a time: e.g., read backward for spelling and capitalization once, fixing things as you find the errors. Then read backward another time for comma splices and fragments, a third time for comma errors, etc.
What should you do next? Most people cannot find all their error patterns alone. Use the above methods first; then take your paper to your school writing or tutoring center or to someone with top-level skills in English. "A" and "B" level writers usually are those who use such help regularly, not those who avoid it.

(B) HAVE YOU RESET MS WORD FOR EDITING?

Grammar & Style: MS Word usually is set for checking grammar but not formal style. For formal writing, you should reset it to "Grammar & Style" (in Word 2000 and later). To do this, go to "Tools," "Options," "Grammar," and "Writing Style." (In earlier versions, reset it to "Formal" grammar style.)

Spell Check: Is it on? If not, go to "Tools," "Options," and "Spelling" and check the first box (in Word 2000 and later).

Word Count: Do you need a word count? Go to "Tools" and "Word Count."

FORMAT: "The Way of . . ." chapters introduce most of the main sections (of the ten main sections in the entire Web site). Sometimes "The Way of . . ." introduces the section's chapters directly by referring to their specific content; at other times, "The Way of . . ." speaks more generally, thus indirectly introducing the section's chapters.

What is argument? It was recognized thousands of years ago by the Greeks, among others, as being one of the most important forms of thinking, speaking, and writing. Argument is a difference of opinion: a communicative act in which there is disagreement between at least two different sides. In education and the professional world, it is a mental, intellectual, and/or verbal event, with emotion or physical action supposedly nonexistent or, more accurately, a secondary function: feelings may sometimes be strong, but in a good educational or professional situation, people are--in theory, at least--supposed to put aside their feelings sufficiently to arrive at the truth.

Argument most commonly exists between two people, two sides, or sometimes--especially in professional situations--as a problem and a solution. However, there can be multiple people, sides, or solutions. These are, however, just the external appearances of argument. The most common form of argument, perhaps, is in our own thinking: we consider the pros and cons, the problems and solutions, of many situations, needs, and beliefs in our own thoughts from a relatively young age. It is a mark of our mental and emotional maturity that as we grow older, we learn to be increasingly more logical, balanced, and perceptive in gathering data and weighing each side carefully when we are thinking our way through our choices. Thus argument is at the heart of some of our best thinking as mature, intelligent adults.

How common is argument? Perhaps it is as old as modern human beings, as old as the oldest culture, and one of the first types of thought voiced by our human ancestors. Possibly it is an evolutionary outgrowth of physical fighting or even of competing biological urges in our ancestors, drawing them toward two opposite actions at once, such as the wish for the safety of the cave versus the need to go out and find food in a dangerous lands. Whatever its source, argument is deeply embedded in our society, our individual selves, and our cultural institutions. Our radios and newspapers constantly offer opinions and facts to help us develop our own opinions. We vote, we decide our futures, and we help decide the futures of others. We choose a path, pick a side, offer an opinion, follow our beliefs, and ask questions to decide what to do. In short, we are a very argumentative society. We like it that way, too: there is plenty of evidence to suggest that argument is not only acceptable, but also good for us in many forms. Our most important political, cultural, and social institutions--democracy, our personal tastes, the social groups we join--all encourage opinion, choice, and diversity. It is probable that without argument, our entire society as we know it would collapse, and we no longer could continue human advancement on many fronts into the future. In short, in many ways, argument is us, and we are argument.

Is it good to argue so much? Just like many other things, argument in and of itself is a neutral event or, rather, one capable of many forms. Some are good and some bad. The kind of argument that tends to be good more often is argument that is rational, carefully reasoned, thoughtful and inclusive, and well supported. This is what we might call "intelligent argument":

There are many different ways to argue. Some of them differ quite remarkably by culture. Here are just four differing examples of how someone might write or speak the introduction to an argument that it is good to learn the ways of different types of people.

A North American (direct thesis)	We should learn the ways of others. First, this is true simply because we can gain much knowledge from others. Second, this is true because we then can learn to interact better with others. Third, this is true because the knowledge and friendship we gain can help us better understand and appreciate cultures beyond us. The following paper will prove each of these statements, step by step.
A Continental European (analysis of an argument to determine its measure of truth)	Is it good to learn the ways of different types of people? First, what does "good" mean? We must decie whether "good" is ethical, practical, or spiritual. Having done that, we always must answer the question of whether "ways of people" implies everything others do, or only those patterns which are particular to those "types" of human beings. Having settled that question, we then might want to consider how or why we might observe others so that we can learn from them. Even if we skip the issue of observation, we still are left with the question of whether there always is learning from all people, or only some learning from some people. The following paper will answer all of these questions so that we can arrive at a somewhat reasonable answer to the initial question.
An Asian (factual proofs that develop into a tentative opinion)	It is a fact that like some mammals and even some insects, humans organize themselves in groups. Such groups may be composed of pairs or of larger groups. All such groups interact with each other in some way. Such interaction is termed "communication." Mammals, at least, and perhaps some insects, too, appear to learn from such communication. "Learning" occurs when an individual appears to pick up an ability or insight, one previously unknown to it, from interaction with another individual. Such learning can, of course, be either good or bad, whether in insects, mammals, or humans. However, some such learning seems to be necessary, especially in the rearing of a newborn individual. Such learning improves the individual's odds of surviving and, often, the group's. Therefore, it is arguable that some learning, at least, of the ways of others is good. This paper will show proof of each of these factual steps.
A Traditional Native American Indian (story example)	Trickster Rabbit one day invited his friends to dinner. White bear came from the west, reared up on his hind legs, and growled. From the north came blue cougar, who snarled and roared. From the south came XXX, who xxx'ed, and xxx came from the east and xxx. Trickster Rabbit welcomed each, and to each he taught his silly Trickster dance, and thus each of the directions of the compass learned to play tricks with the wind and triumph over everything using humor. Here is the story.

In other words, people from the educational systems of North America tend to be very up front: they tend to state a main argument immediately and then prove it, point by point. Those from continental European educational systems tend to use what is sometimes called the "delayed thesis" method: they like to develop a number of ideas, first, then then connect them, step by step, and finally show how the connections prove an overall argumentative conclusion. People from Asian educational systems tend simply to build facts upon facts until a conclusion seems inevitable. Those using a Native American Indian educational system tend to use storytelling to make a point--the story itself proves the point.

How can argument be useful to you? One of the hallmarks of a college education is the ability to see an issue from several different points of view, including the ability to use logic to explore the reasons behind each side's position. Another hallmark of a college education is the ability to carefully, thoroughly, and concisely back up or support an argument you are making. Such support also may include the ability to explain the opposing side's argument and to explain why that side's reasons are insufficient. In the workplace, such ability is highly valued: those who can be trusted to be logical, consistent, and thorough in making a case for their point of view--and especially to consider opposing points of view and, at times, be sufficiently flexible to be convinced by others' arguments--are among the most valued members of a highly functional workplace. Such people are more likely not only to receive raises and promotions but also to be happier and more productive in their professions.

In short, argument is at the heart of higher education and the world of professionals. It also is considered the single most important thinking skill to learn well in most college-level composition courses in this country. Instructional methods for teaching and using arguments may differ widely. Some instructors may teach argument as a separate skill, while others may expect you to apply it specifically to readings, literary texts, particular types of analysis that come to argumentative conclusions, or to workplace situations. Their are many methods of arguing, too, not all of which are represented in this section of the Web site. However, you will be able to find the most common college-level methods of arguing here.

The world of arguing is very wide, running from standard composition thesis papers to political speeches and to making professional proposals. It also is capable of being both simple and deep, from the most simple and basic short argument essay to deep, complex, and thoroughly developed research papers that develop a point to scientific and other recommendations that try to decide what is the best course of action to take among many. Argument is, in academic and professional life, somewhat like breathing when swimming: everyone has to do it, but when you learn the specific patterns of how and when, you become much faster, surer, and more confident.

Rational:	The arguer attempts to be logical.
Careful:	He/she avoids jumping easily to false conclusions.
Thoughtful and Inclusive:	He/she tries to see multiple sides of the issue.
Well Supported:	He/she offers facts and other reliable details.

NEW COLOR SCHEMES
1. new gold (for highest levels) Hex={FF,B9,35}	2. new gold moved to nearby hexagon (secondary levels) Hex={FF,CC,00}	3. light match to new gold and new brown (tertiary levels) Hex={FF,C2,53}	4. lighter match to new gold and new brown (quaternary) Hex={FF,CF,75}
new brown (for top brown bars) Hex={E8,97,00}
new gold moved directly left to red-gold, and lightened (OK) (5th level?) Hex={FF,88,66}	lighter version of "...red-gold" (Ann hasn't seen it, yet.) (5th level?) Hex={FF,A3,88}	old brown (OK) Hex={FF,8F,20}	light version of old brown (OK) Hex={FF,B8,71}

The views and opinions expressed in this page are strictly those of the page author.The contents of this page have not been reviewed or approved by the University of Minnesota.

The views and opinions expressed in this page are strictly those of the page author.
The contents of this page have not been reviewed or approved by the University of Minnesota.