I. Syntheses and General Works

Binford, Lewis R.

1962b

Archaeology as Anthropology. American Antiquity 28(2):217-225.

Binford's offers an argument for the use of a "systemic" approach to archaeological problems, whereby archaeology may contribute to anthropological goals. Using the Old Copper complex as an example of applying this method, he proposes that Old Copper artifacts served primarily to denote social status in a basically egalitarian society, and only secondarily as functional tools. The shift to ornamental use of copper at the beginning of the Woodland era results from more complex social organization based on non-egalitarian principals, and the consequent obsolescence of the old status symbols. Responses to this paper are made by McHugh (1972), Steinbring (1975) and Penman (1977).

1904a

The Native Copper Implements of Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Archeologist (old series) 3(2):49-98.

Brown examines what was known about prehistoric copper artifacts and their origins, together with relevant information such as native copper distribution and aboriginal mining. He also presents a typology for copper artifacts, apparently the first. He distinguishes between "implements" and "ornaments" and then elaborates on the classification of implements. His typology for ornaments is contained in a separate paper (Brown 1904b).

1904b

The Native Copper Ornaments of Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Archeologist (old series) 3(3):100-124.

Brown presents a typology for copper "ornaments," complementing his earlier (1904a) typology for copper "implements." Crescents are included here as ornaments. Because ornaments are relatively uncommon, he is able to discuss them in greater individual detail. The typology is illustrated with five plates of line drawings.

1975

The Archaeology of Michigan, revised edition. Cranbrook Institute of Science, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan (pages 81-90).

Fitting summarizes the Late Archaic use of copper in the western Great Lakes region, with consideration of the relevant sites and dates. He looks at the relationship of various Late Archaic groups in the area. He does not believe that Old Copper is a cultural group, per se.

1940a

A Schedule of Classification, Comparison, and Nomenclature for Copper Artifacts in Minnesota. The Minnesota Archaeologist 6(2):35-50.

Flaskerd presents a typological classification for Old Copper artifacts, with descriptions and illustrations for both common forms and variations. This typology is superseded in common use by Wittry's (1951).

1963

The dispersal of copper artifacts in the Late Archaic period of prehistoric North American. The Wisconsin Archeologist 44(3):129-180.

This paper examines the distribution of Late Archaic copper artifacts in relation to environmental, geographical and temporal parameters using only data derived from primary archaeological sources. Fogel produces a typology based on this information, considering context as well as morphology. He examines the distribution of Late Archaic copper artifacts outside of the basic Old Copper area, and considers possible routes of transmission of copper and copper goods.

1961a

Lake Superior Copper and the Indians: Miscellaneous Studies of Great Lakes Prehistory. University of Michigan, Museum of Anthropology, Anthropological Papers 17.

This book contains contributions by a number of individuals. Because of its length and the diversity of its contents, each section is listed separately under the following citations (by section): I. Griffin 1961e. III. Drier 1961a, 1961b; Griffin & Quimby 1961a; Root 1961; Bastian 1961: Griffin 1961b; Griffin 1961c; Griffin 1961f; Griffin 1961g. IV. Griffin & Quimby 1961b; Quimby & Griffin 1961c; Griffin 1961d.

1960

Some Prehistoric Connections Between Siberia and America. Science 131(3402):801-812.

1961e

Copper Artifacts from Manitoba. In Lake Superior Copper and the Indians: Miscellaneous Studies of Great Lakes Prehistory. University of Michigan, Museum of Anthropology, Anthropological Papers 17.

Griffin discusses the distribution of Old Copper artifacts in Manitoba. He feels that they probably represent an expansion of the Old Copper people into the newly exposed Lake Agassiz basin, which requires accepting an early date for Old Copper.

1964

The Northeast Woodlands Area, in Prehistoric Man in the New World, pages 223-258, edited by Jesse D. Jennings and Edward Norbeck. William March Rice University, Chicago.

In this paper, Griffin favors a late date for the Old Copper complex, c. 2000-1000 B.C. He believes that it is an independent development, unrelated to other metallurgical technologies.

1965

Late Quaternary Prehistory in the Northeastern Woodlands. In The Quaternary of the United States, pages 655-667, edited by H.E. Wright, Jr. and D.G. Frey. Princeton University Press.

Griffin considers the Old Copper complex in relation to environmental and climatic factors, especially lake level changes. He acknowledges that there is some evidence for pre-Nipissing Old Copper and that some sites may date to 3000 B.C., but that most Old Copper sites occur between the Nipissing and Algoma stages of Lake Michigan, in the time period 2200-1100 B.C. He notes that the distribution of copper artifacts in the Late Archaic ranges from South Dakota and Saskatchewan on the west to Montreal, New York and New England in the east, and from Central Manitoba in the north to central Kentucky in the south.

1966

A Non-Neolithic Copper Industry in North America. In Actas y Memorias 1:281-285 (XXXVI Congresso Internacional de Americanistas, Seville, Spain, 1964).

1964 Copper Artifacts and Glacial Lake Agassiz Beaches. The Minnesota Archaeologist 26:5-22.

Johnson examines the idea that the Old Copper Indians were contemporary with the late stages of glacial Lake Agassiz and represented an adaptation to the lakeshore environment. He reviews a new chronology for Lake Agassiz which indicates that the Lake was extinct by the beginning of the Old Copper period, and proceeds to examine the distribution of Old Copper artifacts in relation to Lake Agassiz beaches in northwestern Minnesota. He concludes that there is no indication that Old Copper and Lake Agassiz are contemporary.

1940a

The Copper Issue. The Minnesota Archaeologist 6(2).

This issue is a collection of papers on the Old Copper complex and copper artifacts. Many pieces seem to be oriented toward collectors rather than professional prehistorians, although Flaskerd (1940a) does provide a thorough typology for Old Copper artifacts (superseded in common use by Wittry's [1951] typology). A brief review of each paper is provided separately under the following citations (by section): I. Flaskerd 1940a. III. Landon 1940b. IV. Kruse and Soulen 1940; Sackett 1940; Flaskerd 1940b.

1981

Great Lakes Archaeology. Academic Press, New York.

In this regional perspective on prehistory, Mason presents the Old Copper complex in a broader than usual context. He sees it as part of a larger network of ideas and adaptation including Maritime, Shield and especially Laurentian Archaic. He also views Old Copper as consisting of a number of societies, each with somewhat different cultural characteristics. He examines the principal Old Copper sites and their chronology in some detail, noting that disturbance compromises the data at each site. (Riverside is not taken to be an Old Copper site.) He affirms that although the prehistoric use of copper has wide spatial and temporal parameters, subtracting the ubiquitous forms leaves a core of characteristic Old Copper artifacts in a restricted area and period. He proposes that Old Copper is immediately pre-Nipissing, Nipissing, and immediately post-Nipissing in age, placing it roughly in the period of 3000-1000 B.C.

1961

The Age of the Old Copper Culture. The Wisconsin Archeologist 42:143-155.

By examining typological, geological and radiometric information, Mason and Mason argue that the Old Copper complex is not older than 3500-4000 B.P., and that the C-14 dates of 5600 + 400 and 7510 + 340 from the Oconto site must be regarded as anomalous and in error. They argue on the basis of other carbon dates, point typology and distributional data showing large numbers of Old Copper artifacts occur in areas inundated by Lake Michigan during the earlier (Algonquin and Nipissing) stages (cf. Binford 1962a; Quimby 1962h; Ritzenthaler 1970).

1973

"New Archaeology" and the Old Copper Culture. The Wisconsin Archeologist 54(2):70-83.

McHugh examines Binford's (1962b) "systemic" analysis of the Old Copper complex, and concludes that the putative explanatory theory actually explains nothing. McHugh criticizes the characterization of the artifacts and archaeological record, the chronology, and points out the circular reasoning of parts of the arguments. He contends that although the idea of the "multiple functioning nature of artifacts" is intriguing and merits further examination, Binford has failed to demonstrate that it applies to Old Copper, and further has not contributed any important insights on the Old Copper complex. McHugh also observes that this approach has not been successfully applied to any other sets of data.

1942

The First Settlers of Wisconsin. Wisconsin Magazine of History 25:153-169.

In this general synthesis of the prehistory of Wisconsin, it seems that McKern is the first to propose the presence of an "Old Copper Industry," as he terms it. This industry is characterized by the presence of heavy, functional and deeply corroded copper artifacts, widely distributed in Wisconsin and neighboring areas. He notes the lack of cultural associations, and postulates that they belong to an Archaic culture on the basis of similar copper artifact in Archaic (Laurentian) manifestations in New York and New England.

1951

Reevaluation of the Old Copper Industry. American Antiquity 16(3):240-247.

Miles evaluates the chronological placement and cultural affiliation of the Old Copper complex by re-examining the available information, bringing it together in a systematic review and comparing it with other copper-using cultures in northern North America. She notes that only a few of the 21 types of distinctive Old Copper artifacts are shared by other groups, and finds no evidence to support close affiliation of the various copper using peoples. She does hypothesize that utilitarian copper artifacts may be a feature of adaptation by hunters to northern forest zones.

1967

Cultural Traditions in the Lake Forest Region During the Late High-Water Stages of the Post Glacial Lakes. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan (pages 153-233). University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.

Papworth examines the high water phases of the Great Lakes and the associated archaeology, ca. 1000 B.C. He notes widespread common burial practices which may indicate shared religious belief. He also notes a widespread common material culture including the use of copper, with copper use heaviest in the western Great Lakes. He sees the Old Copper Culture as one regional expression of a widespread Lake Forest adaptation. (Reviewed from abstract.)

1977

The Old Copper Culture: An Analysis of Old Copper Artifacts. The Wisconsin Archeologist 58(1):3-23.

Penman begins with a succinct, useful introduction to the Old Copper complex. He continues with a use wear analysis of Old Copper artifacts from a large Wisconsin museum collection. Because the surfaces of most of these artifacts are too corroded to preserve wear striations, he bases his analysis principally on measuring edge angles and irregularities of form. He concludes that most Old Copper artifacts show signs of use or even heavy use, and applies this observation in a critique of Binford's (1962b) interpretation of Old Copper. Penman also offers interpretations of how various implements may have been used.

1952

The Archaeology of the Upper Great Lakes Area. In Archaeology of Eastern United States, edited by James B. Griffin, pages 99-107. University of Chicago Press.

Quimby gives a brief overview of what was currently known about the Old Copper complex and about prehistoric copper mining in upper Michigan. He notes that the complex appears to date to the Archaic or Early Woodland periods, and that it was thought to have a possible connection with the Eskimos.

1960

Indian Life in the Upper Great Lakes: 11,000 B.C. to A.D. 1800. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

In this popular introduction to regional prehistory, Quimby briefly introduces his "Copper Eskimo" hypothesis (cf. Quimby 1962). He believes that Old Copper technology first developed in proximity to copper sources, and that the metal was first worked as a special kind of ground stone. He ascribes Old Copper finds to such distant locations as New York, Illinois and Kentucky.

1962a

The Old Copper Culture and the Copper Eskimos, an Hypothesis. In Prehistoric Cultural Relations Between the Arctic and Temperate Zones of North America, Arctic Institute of North America, Technical Paper no. 11, John M. Campbell, editor.

Quimby proposes that the Old Copper complex is oldest in its southern range, where it is pre-Nipissing. He suggests that conditions during the Altithermal caused the Old Copper people to move north, where one of the territories they exploited was the newly available Agassiz lake bed. He suggests that Old Copper persists in the north (where the sites should be younger) while it becomes extinct in its southern homeland. In the north the tradition persists until c. 1000 A.D., when it is adopted by Eskimo peoples, thus giving a five millennia continuity for the Old Copper tradition. (This idea is not well accepted. See Johnson 1964; Steinbring 1975.)

1962b

The Age of the Oconto Site. The Wisconsin Archeologist 43(1):16-19.

Quimby responds to Mason and Mason's (1962) examination of the dating of the Oconto site. He acknowledges that they present a convincing argument against the Oconto site early C-14 dates but notes complicating factors and alternate interpretations in order to illustrate that the dating of the Old Copper complex is neither simple nor settled (cf. Mason and Mason 1961; Binford 1962a; Ritzenthaler 1970).

1961

Various Finds of Copper and Stone Artifacts in the Lake Superior Basin. In Lake Superior Copper and the Indians: Miscellaneous Studies of Great Lakes Prehistory, Anthropological Papers, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, no. 17, edited by James B. Griffin, pages 103-117.

These finds are from Ontario, and include gaffs brought up in fishermen's nets. These is some discussion of context and much consideration of Old Copper chronology in terms of paleoenvironmental and stratigraphic factors.

1957

The Old Copper Culture of Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Archeologist 38(4).

Six major articles on the Old Copper complex are brought together in this issue - one original, four reprinted from earlier issues of The Wisconsin Archaeologist, and one reprinted from American Antiquity. The papers are reviewed under the following citations (which reflect the original date of publication): I. Wittry 1951; Wittry and Ritzenthaler 1956. II. Baerris et al. 1954; Ritzenthaler and Scholz 1946; Ritzenthaler and Wittry 1952; Ritzenthaler et al. 1957.

1966

Old Copper Culture Artifacts in Southern Manitoba. American Antiquity 31(4):567-574.

Steinbring describes copper artifacts from the Manitoba Museum, collected in southern Manitoba and nearby Ontario. He discusses distribution and potential implications to chronology of the Old Copper complex.

1968

A Copper Blade of Possible Paleo-Indian Type. Manitoba Archaeological Newsletter 5(1-2):3-12 (Spring-Summer 1968).

Steinbring discusses a copper artifact morphologically resembling Paleo Indian lithic points, found below the Campbell beach ridge in western Manitoba. In his analysis and evaluation, he reviews much contextual information on environmental and cultural factors.

1970

Evidences of Old Copper in a Northern Transitional Zone. In Ten Thousand Years, pages 47-75, edited by Walter M. Hlady. Manitoba Archaeological Society, Winnipeg.

Steinbring discusses approximately 50 Old Copper artifacts from Manitoba, noting that he considers that province peripheral to the Old Copper culture. He also discusses the Jansson site, where fluctuating water levels exposed a bison skull, stone and copper artifacts. The site could not be relocated for professional examination. Steinbring is interested in demonstrating a Plano-Old Copper affiliation. He also argues cautiously against Quimby's (1962) Copper Eskimo hypothesis.

1974

The Preceramic Archaeology of Northern Minnesota. In Aspects of Upper Great Lakes Anthropology: Papers in Honor of Lloyd A. Wilford, edited by Elden Johnson. Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul.

In this overview Steinbring discusses several copper bearing sites. He examines the evidence for Plano-Old Copper affiliations, and observes that the southern originating copper industry seems to have undergone local adaptation, possibly persisting to a late date in conservative local traditions. One site seems to show a transition from the large, utilitarian Old Copper implements to the smaller ornamental pieces of later periods, a change which apparently to coincide with the transition to Initial Woodland and the appearance of ceramic technology. Steinbring postulates that the change in copper technology may result at least in part from increased demand by Hopewellian groups on already overexploited copper sources.

1975

Taxonomic and Associational Considerations of Copper Technology During The Archaic Tradition. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

Steinbring deals with many topics concerning Old Copper in this large volume. He responds to Binford's (1962) "systemic" interpretation of Old Copper, and Quimby's (1962) Copper Eskimo hypothesis. He elaborates on Wittry's typology, defining additional subtypes and providing more complete descriptions. The first detailed published information on four "Old Copper sites" is provided, namely Pickerel Lake, Tulabi Falls, Whitemouth Falls and Houska Point. (See cross listing under Section II for more information.) Finally, Steinbring argues for the non-utilitarian nature of crescents and their importance as lunar symbols, relating this to the decline of the Old Copper complex. He also proposes a chronology of types, and discusses the potential cultural implications of the copper technology.

1986

The Archaic Tradition. The Wisconsin Archeologist 67(3-4):207-238.

In this synthesis of the Archaic tradition in Wisconsin, Stoltman presents a valuable perspective on the Old Copper complex by examining it in its Archaic context. He suggests that certain contemporary Middle Archaic sites may be identified with the Old Copper complex on the basis of characteristics other than the diagnostic copper artifacts.

1942

Ornamented Coppers of the Wisconsin Area. The Wisconsin Archeologist 23(3):49-85.

Winn describes c. 100 decorated copper artifacts, most from Wisconsin. The most common decoration is a series of small indentations arranged in one, two or three rows in reoccurring, symmetrical patterns. Winn examines various explanations but favors the idea that they are tally marks added in groups to commemorate events such as advancement in a society. He notes that half of the ornamented copper comes from an 8 county area in Wisconsin, although examples are known from as far west as Cass County, Minnesota and as far north as Dickson County, Michigan.

1950

A Preliminary Study of the Old Copper Complex. B.A. Thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

1951

A Preliminary Study of the Old Copper Complex. The Wisconsin Archeologist 32(1):1-18.

Wittry proposes a refined typology for Old Copper artifacts based on earlier typologies (I. Brown 1904a, 1904h; West 1929; Flaskerd 1940), on the relative distribution of various types, and on the study of caches. He draws his data from 2,600 Wisconsin specimens in museum collections. The distribution studies also indicate the presence of primary Old Copper centers in southern and eastern Wisconsin, with secondary centers in outlying areas of the state. A few types are tentatively identified as "earlier" or "later." This is the standard typology. (Cf. Penman 1977 for useful comments and clarifications on this typology. Also, many of the artifacts used in the formulation of this typology are illustrated in Mason & Mason 1967.)

1956

The Old Copper Complex: An Archaic Manifestation in Wisconsin. American Antiquity 21(3):244-254. (Reprinted in The Wisconsin Archeologist 38(4):311-329.)

The authors summarize what was known about the Old Copper complex, including new radiocarbon dates. The Oconto and Osceola sites are compared first to each other and then to other sites in and beyond the Old Copper area. The authors conclude that the Old Copper traits probably originated in their heartland in Wisconsin, that the complex persisted for a long period of time, and that the associated burial practices may have survived after the actual use of copper dwindled.

1962

An Investigation of Possible Connections Between the Early Metal Using Cultures of Siberia and the Old Copper Culture. The Wisconsin Archeologist 43(1):20-24.

Wormington examined Siberian collections in the Soviet Union and consulted with Soviet archaeologists to determine whether Old Copper technology might have been derived from early metal using cultures of Siberia. He concludes that there is no connection; and that the Old Copper technology of the Great Lakes is an indigenous development.

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